Calcium isotope fractionation by intracellular amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) forming cyanobacteria.

The formation of intracellular amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) by various cyanobacteria is a widespread biomineralization process, yet its mechanism and importance in past and modern environments remain to be fully comprehended. This study explores whether calcium (Ca) isotope fractionation, linked to ACC-forming cyanobacteria, can serve as a reliable tracer for detecting these microorganisms in modern and ancient settings. Accordingly, we measured stable Ca isotope fractionation during Ca uptake by the intracellular ACC-forming cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. PCC 7425. Our results show that Cyanothece sp. PCC 7425 cells are enriched in lighter Ca isotopes relative to the solution. This finding is consistent with the kinetic isotope effects observed in the Ca isotope fractionation during biogenic carbonate formation by marine calcifying organisms. The Ca isotope composition of Cyanothece sp. PCC 7425 was accurately modeled using a Rayleigh fractionation model, resulting in a Ca isotope fractionation factor (Δ44Ca) equal to -0.72 ± 0.05‰. Numerical modeling suggests that Ca uptake by these cyanobacteria is primarily unidirectional, with minimal back reaction observed over the duration of the experiment. Finally, we compared our Δ44Ca values with those of other biotic and abiotic carbonates, revealing similarities with organisms that form biogenic calcite. These similarities raise questions about the effectiveness of using the Ca isotope fractionation factor as a univocal tracer of ACC-forming cyanobacteria in the environment. We propose that the use of Δ44Ca in combination with other proposed tracers of ACC-forming cyanobacteria such as Ba and Sr isotope fractionation factors and/or elevated Ba/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios may provide a more reliable approach.

Hydrogen Peroxide Stress Induced in the Marine Cyanobacterium Synechococcus aeruginosus and Phormidium valdarianum.

Biochemical markers against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress were developed in marine cyanobacteria under standard laboratory conditions. To find out the ability to cope with different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, two species of marine cyanobacteria including unicellular and filamentous forms were exposed for shorter duration. Synechococcus aeruginosus and Phormidium valderianum tolerated hydrogen peroxide by showing the highest growth of Superoxide dismutase in Synechococcus aeruginosus and Phormidium valderianum, catalase in Synechococcus aeruginosus, peroxidase in Synechococcus aeruginosus and Phormidium valderianum, Glutathione S-transferase in Synechococcus aeruginosus and Phormidium valderianum which were identified as biochemical markers of oxidative stress against H2O2 in marine cyanobacteria. Synechococcus aeruginosus showed new isoforms for Superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, Glutathione peroxidase, and Glutathione S-transferase and Phormidium valderianum for Superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and Glutathione S-transferase. Synechococcus aeruginosus is suggested as the indicator species for biochemical markers against hydrogen peroxide in marine cyanobacteria. Peroxidase is suggested as biochemical enzyme marker. The present investigated on these new isoenzymes were identified as biochemical markers for oxidative stress.

Photosynthetic modulation during the diurnal cycle in a unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium grown under nitrogen-replete and nitrogen-fixing conditions.

Cyanobacteria are the only oxygenic photosynthetic organisms that can fix nitrogen. In diazotrophic cyanobacteria, the regulation of photosynthesis during the diurnal cycle is hypothesized to be linked with nitrogen fixation and involve the D1 protein isoform PsbA4. The amount of bioavailable nitrogen has a major impact on productivity in aqueous environments. In contrast to low- or nitrogen-fixing (-N) conditions, little data on photosynthetic regulation under nitrogen-replete (+ N) conditions are available. We compared the regulation of photosynthesis under -N and + N conditions during the diurnal cycle in wild type and a psbA4 deletion strain of the unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142. We observed common changes to light harvesting and photosynthetic electron transport during the dark in + N and -N conditions and found that these modifications occur in both diazotrophic and non-diazotrophic cyanobacteria. Nitrogen availability increased PSII titer when cells transitioned from dark to light and promoted growth. Under -N conditions, deletion of PsbA4 modified charge recombination in dark and regulation of PSII titer during dark to light transition. We conclude that darkness impacts the acceptor-side modifications to PSII and photosynthetic electron transport in cyanobacteria independently of the nitrogen-fixing status and the presence of PsbA4.

Impact of the dynamics of the catalytic arginine on nitrite and chlorite binding by dimeric chlorite dismutase.

Chlorite dismutases (Clds) are heme b containing oxidoreductases able to decompose chlorite to chloride and molecular oxygen. This work analyses the impact of the distal, flexible and catalytic arginine on the binding of anionic angulate ligands like nitrite and the substrate chlorite. Dimeric Cld from Cyanothece sp. PCC7425 was used as a model enzyme. We have investigated wild-type CCld having the distal catalytic R127 hydrogen-bonded to glutamine Q74 and variants with R127 (i) being arrested in a salt-bridge with a glutamate (Q74E), (ii) being fully flexible (Q74V) or (iii) substituted by either alanine (R127A) or lysine (R127K). We present the electronic and spectral signatures of the high-spin ferric proteins and the corresponding low-spin nitrite complexes elucidated by UV-visible, circular dichroism and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies. Furthermore, we demonstrate the impact of the dynamics of R127 on the thermal stability of the respective nitrite adducts and present the X-ray crystal structures of the nitrite complexes of wild-type CCld and the variants Q74V, Q74E and R127A. In addition, the molecular dynamics (MD) and the binding modi of nitrite and chlorite to the ferric wild-type enzyme and the mutant proteins and the interaction of the oxoanions with R127 have been analysed by MD simulations. The findings are discussed with respect to the role(s) of R127 in ligand and chlorite binding and substrate degradation.

A structural explanation for the mechanism and specificity of plant branching enzymes I and IIb.

Branching enzymes (BEs) are essential in the biosynthesis of starch and glycogen and play critical roles in determining the fine structure of these polymers. The substrates of these BEs are long carbohydrate chains that interact with these enzymes via multiple binding sites on the enzyme's surface. By controlling the branched-chain length distribution, BEs can mediate the physiological properties of starch and glycogen moieties; however, the mechanism and structural determinants of this specificity remain mysterious. In this study, we identify a large dodecaose binding surface on rice BE I (BEI) that reaches from the outside of the active site to the active site of the enzyme. Mutagenesis activity assays confirm the importance of this binding site in enzyme catalysis, from which we conclude that it is likely the acceptor chain binding site. Comparison of the structures of BE from Cyanothece and BE1 from rice allowed us to model the location of the donor-binding site. We also identified two loops that likely interact with the donor chain and whose sequences diverge between plant BE1, which tends to transfer longer chains, and BEIIb, which transfers exclusively much shorter chains. When the sequences of these loops were swapped with the BEIIb sequence, rice BE1 also became a short-chain transferring enzyme, demonstrating the key role these loops play in specificity. Taken together, these results provide a more complete picture of the structure, selectivity, and activity of BEs.

Arresting the Catalytic Arginine in Chlorite Dismutases: Impact on Heme Coordination, Thermal Stability, and Catalysis.

Chlorite dismutases (Clds) are heme b-containing oxidoreductases that can decompose chlorite to chloride and molecular oxygen. They are divided in two clades that differ in oligomerization, subunit architecture, and the hydrogen-bonding network of the distal catalytic arginine, which is proposed to switch between two conformations during turnover. To understand the impact of the conformational dynamics of this basic amino acid on heme coordination, structure, and catalysis, Cld from Cyanothece sp. PCC7425 was used as a model enzyme. As typical for a clade 2 Cld, its distal arginine 127 is hydrogen-bonded to glutamine 74. The latter has been exchanged with either glutamate (Q74E) to arrest R127 in a salt bridge or valine (Q74V) that mirrors the setting in clade 1 Clds. We present the X-ray crystal structures of Q74V and Q74E and demonstrate the pH-induced changes in the environment and coordination of the heme iron by ultraviolet-visible, circular dichroism, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies as well as differential scanning calorimetry. The conformational dynamics of R127 is shown to have a significant role in heme coordination during the alkaline transition and in the thermal stability of the heme cavity, whereas its impact on the catalytic efficiency of chlorite degradation is relatively small. The findings are discussed with respect to (i) the flexible loop connecting the N-terminal and C-terminal ferredoxin-like domains, which differs in clade 1 and clade 2 Clds and carries Q74 in clade 2 proteins, and (ii) the proposed role(s) of the arginine in catalysis.

Kinetic and structural insights into enzymatic mechanism of succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase from Cyanothece sp. ATCC51142.

As a ubiquitous enzyme, succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase contributes significantly in many pathways including the tricarboxylic acid cycle and other metabolic processes such as detoxifying the accumulated succinic semialdehyde and surviving in nutrient-limiting conditions. Here the cce4228 gene encoding succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase from Cyanothece sp. ATCC51142 was cloned and the homogenous recombinant cce4228 protein was obtained by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. Biochemical characterization revealed that cce4228 protein displayed optimal activity at presence of metal ions in basic condition. Although the binding affinity of cce4228 protein with NAD+ was about 50-fold lower than that of cce4228 with NADP+, the catalytic efficiency of cce4228 protein towards succinic semialdehyde with saturated concentration of NADP+ is same as that with saturated concentration of NAD+ as its cofactors. Meanwhile, the catalytic activity of cce4228 was competitively inhibited by succinic semialdehyde substrate. Kinetic and structural analysis demonstrated that the conserved Cys262 and Glu228 residues were crucial for the catalytic activity of cce4228 protein and the Ser157 and Lys154 residues were determinants of cofactor preference.

Heterogeneous nitrogen fixation rates confer energetic advantage and expanded ecological niche of unicellular diazotroph populations.

Nitrogen fixing plankton provide nitrogen to fuel marine ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles but the factors that constrain their growth and habitat remain poorly understood. Here we investigate the importance of metabolic specialization in unicellular diazotroph populations, using laboratory experiments and model simulations. In clonal cultures of Crocosphaera watsonii and Cyanothece sp. spiked with 15N2, cellular 15N enrichment developed a bimodal distribution within colonies, indicating that N2 fixation was confined to a subpopulation. In a model of population metabolism, heterogeneous nitrogen (N2) fixation rates substantially reduce the respiration rate required to protect nitrogenase from O2. The energy savings from metabolic specialization is highest at slow growth rates, allowing populations to survive in deeper waters where light is low but nutrients are high. Our results suggest that heterogeneous N2 fixation in colonies of unicellular diazotrophs confers an energetic advantage that expands the ecological niche and may have facilitated the evolution of multicellular diazotrophs.

Cyanobacteria as Nanogold Factories II: Chemical Reactivity and anti-Myocardial Infraction Properties of Customized Gold Nanoparticles Biosynthesized by Cyanothece sp.

Cyanothece sp., a coccoid, unicellular, nitrogen-fixing and hydrogen-producing cyanobacterium, has been used in this study to biosynthesize customized gold nanoparticles under certain chemical conditions. The produced gold nanoparticles had a characteristic absorption band at 525-535 nm. Two types of gold nanoparticle, the purple and blue, were formed according to the chemical environment in which the cyanobacterium was grown. Dynamic light scattering was implemented to estimate the size of the purple and blue nanoparticles, which ranged from 80 ± 30 nm and 129 ± 40 nm in diameter, respectively. The highest scattering of laser light was recorded for the blue gold nanoparticles, which was possibly due to their larger size and higher concentration. The appearance of anodic and cathodic peaks in cyclic voltammetric scans of the blue gold nanoparticles reflected the oxidation into gold oxide, followed by the subsequent reduction into the nano metal state. The two produced forms of gold nanoparticles were used to treat isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in experimental rats. Both forms of nanoparticles ameliorated myocardial infarction injury, with a slight difference in their curative activity with the purple being more effective. Mechanisms that might explain the curative effect of these nanoparticles on the myocardial infarction were proposed. The morphological, physiological, and biochemical attributes of the Cyanothece sp. cyanobacterium were fundamental for the successful production of "tailored" nanoparticles, and complemented the chemical conditions for the differential biosynthesis process. The present research represents a novel approach to manipulate cyanobacterial cells towards the production of different-sized gold nanoparticles whose curative impacts vary accordingly. This is the first report on that type of manipulated gold nanoparticles biosynthesis which will hopefully open doors for further investigations and biotechnological applications.

Structures of maintenance of carboxysome distribution Walker-box McdA and McdB adaptor homologs.

Carboxysomes, protein-coated organelles in cyanobacteria, are important in global carbon fixation. However, these organelles are present at low copy in each cell and hence must be segregated to ensure transmission from one generation to the next. Recent studies revealed that a DNA partition-like ParA-ParB system mediates carboxysome maintenance, called McdA-McdB. Here, we describe the first McdA and McdB homolog structures. McdA is similar to partition ParA Walker-box proteins, but lacks the P-loop signature lysine involved in ATP binding. Strikingly, a McdA-ATP structure shows that a lysine distant from the P-loop and conserved in McdA homologs, enables ATP-dependent nucleotide sandwich dimer formation. Similar to partition ParA proteins this ATP-bound form binds nonspecific-DNA. McdB, which we show directly binds McdA, harbors a unique fold and appears to form higher-order oligomers like partition ParB proteins. Thus, our data reveal a new signature motif that enables McdA dimer formation and indicates that, similar to DNA segregation, carboxysome maintenance systems employ Walker-box proteins as DNA-binding motors while McdB proteins form higher order oligomers, which could function as adaptors to link carboxysomes and provide for stable transport by the McdA proteins.

Broad-Spectrum Anti-Adhesive Coating Based on an Extracellular Polymer from a Marine Cyanobacterium.

Medical device-associated infections are a major health threat, representing about half of all hospital-acquired infections. Current strategies to prevent this problem based on device coatings with antimicrobial compounds (antibiotics or antiseptics) have proven to be insufficient, often toxic, and even promoting bacterial resistance. Herein, we report the development of an infection-preventive coating (CyanoCoating) produced with an extracellular polymer released by the marine cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. CCY 0110. CyanoCoating was prepared by spin-coating and its bacterial anti-adhesive efficiency was evaluated against relevant etiological agents (Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) and platelets, both in the presence or absence of human plasma proteins. CyanoCoating cytotoxicity was assessed using the L929 fibroblasts cell line. CyanoCoating exhibited a smooth topography, low thickness and high hydrophilic properties with mild negative charge. The non-cytotoxic CyanoCoating prevented adhesion of all the bacteria tested (≤80%) and platelets (<87%), without inducing platelet activation (even in the presence of plasma proteins). The significant reduction in protein adsorption (<77%) confirmed its anti-adhesive properties. The development of this anti-adhesive coating is an important step towards the establishment of a new technological platform capable of preventing medical device-associated infections, without inducing thrombus formation in blood-contacting applications.

Taxonomic resolution of the genus Cyanothece (Chroococcales, Cyanobacteria), with a treatment on Gloeothece and three new genera, Crocosphaera, Rippkaea, and Zehria.

The systematics of single-celled cyanobacteria represents a major challenge due to morphological convergence and application of various taxonomic concepts. The genus Cyanothece is one of the most problematic cases, as the name has been applied to oval-shaped coccoid cyanobacteria lacking sheaths with little regard to their phylogenetic position and details of morphology and ultrastructure. Hereby we analyze an extensive set of complementary genetic and phenotypic evidence to disentangle the relationships among these cyanobacteria. We provide diagnostic characters to separate the known genera Cyanothece, Gloeothece, and Aphanothece, and provide a valid description for Crocosphaera gen. nov. We describe two new genera, Rippkaea and Zehria, to characterize two distinct phylogenetic lineages outside the previously known genera. We further describe 13 new species in total including Cyanothece svehlovae, Gloeothece aequatorialis, G. aurea, G. bryophila, G. citriformis, G. reniformis, Gloeothece tonkinensis, G. verrucosa, Crocosphaera watsonii, C. subtropica, C. chwakensis, Rippkaea orientalis, and Zehria floridana to recognize the intrageneric diversity as rendered by polyphasic analysis. We discuss the close relationship of free-living cyanobacteria from the Crocosphaera lineage to nitrogen-fixing endosymbionts of marine algae. The current study includes several experimental strains (Crocosphaera and "Cyanothece") important for the study of diazotrophy and the global oceanic nitrogen cycle, and provides evidence suggesting ancestral N2 -fixing capability in the chroococcalean lineage.

Highly active extracellular α-class carbonic anhydrase of Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142.

Here, for the first time, we report the presence of highly active extracellular carbonic anhydrase (CA) of α-class in cyanobacterial cells. The enzyme activity was confirmed both in vivo in intact cells and in vitro, using the recombinant protein. CA activity in intact cells of Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 reached ∼0.6 Wilbur-Anderson units (WAU) per 1 mg of total cell protein, and it was inhibited by a specific CAs inhibitor, ethoxyzolamide. The genes cce_4328 (ecaA) and cce_0871 (ecaB), encoding two potential extracellular CAs of Cyanothece have been cloned, and the corresponding proteins EcaA and EcaB, representing CAs of α- and ß-class, respectively, have been heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. High specific activity (∼1.1 × 104 WAU per 1 mg of target protein) was detected for the recombinant EcaA only. The presence of EcaA in the outer cellular layers of Cyanothece was confirmed by immunological analysis with antibodies raised against the recombinant protein. The absence of redox regulation of EcaA activity indicates that this protein does not possess a disulfide bond essential for some α-class CAs. The content and activity of EcaA in a fraction of periplasmic proteins was higher in Cyanothece cells grown at ambient concentration of CO2 (0.04%) compared to those grown at an elevated CO2 concentration (1.7%). At the same time, the level of ecaA gene mRNA varied insignificantly in response to changes in CO2 supply. Our results indicate that EcaA is responsible for CA activity of intact Cyanothece cells and point to its possible physiological role under low-CO2 conditions.

Enhanced Nitrogen Fixation in a glgX-Deficient Strain of Cyanothece sp. Strain ATCC 51142, a Unicellular Nitrogen-Fixing Cyanobacterium.

Cyanobacteria are oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes with important roles in the global carbon and nitrogen cycles. Unicellular nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are known to be ubiquitous, contributing to the nitrogen budget in diverse ecosystems. In the unicellular cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. strain ATCC 51142, carbon assimilation and carbohydrate storage are crucial processes that occur as part of a robust diurnal cycle of photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation. During the light period, cells accumulate fixed carbon in glycogen granules to use as stored energy to power nitrogen fixation in the dark. These processes have not been thoroughly investigated, due to the lack of a genetic modification system in this organism. In bacterial glycogen metabolism, the glgX gene encodes a debranching enzyme that functions in storage polysaccharide catabolism. To probe the consequences of modifying the cycle of glycogen accumulation and subsequent mobilization, we engineered a strain of Cyanothece 51142 in which the glgX gene was genetically disrupted. We found that the ΔglgX strain exhibited a higher growth rate than the wild-type strain and displayed a higher rate of nitrogen fixation. Glycogen accumulated to higher levels at the end of the light period in the ΔglgX strain, compared to the wild-type strain. These data suggest that the larger glycogen pool maintained by the ΔglgX mutant is able to fuel greater growth and nitrogen fixation ability.IMPORTANCE Cyanobacteria are oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that are found in a wide variety of ecological environments, where they are important contributors to global carbon and nitrogen cycles. Genetic manipulation systems have been developed in a number of cyanobacterial strains, allowing both the interruption of endogenous genes and the introduction of new genes and entire pathways. However, unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacteria have been generally recalcitrant to genetic transformation. These cyanobacteria are becoming important model systems to study diurnally regulated processes. Strains of the Cyanothece genus have been characterized as displaying robust growth and high rates of nitrogen fixation. The significance of our study is in the establishment of a genetic modification system in a unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium, the demonstration of the interruption of the glgX gene in Cyanothece sp. strain ATCC 51142, and the characterization of the increased nitrogen-fixing ability of this strain.

Regulation of PSII function in Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 during a light-dark cycle.

Cyanobacteria, as well as green algae and higher plants, have highly conserved photosynthetic machinery. Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 is a unicellular, aerobic, diazotrophic cyanobacterium that fixes N2 in the dark. In Cyanothece, the psbA gene family is composed of five members, encoding different isoforms of the D1 protein. A new D1 protein has been postulated in the literature, which blocks PSII during the night and allows the fixation of nitrogen. We present data showing changes in PSII function in cells grown in cycles alternating between 12 h of light and dark, respectively, at Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142. Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142 uses intrinsic mechanisms to protect its nitrogenase activity in a two-stage process. In Stage I, immediately after the onset of darkness, the cells lose photosynthetic activity in a reversible process, probably by dissociation of water oxidation complex from photosystem II via a mechanism that does not require de novo protein synthesis. In Stage II, a more severe disruption of photosystem II function occurs is in part protein synthesis dependent and it could be a functional signature of the presence of sentinel D1 in a limited number of reaction centers still active or not yet inactivated by the mechanism described in Stage I. This process of inhibition uses light as a triggering signal for both the inhibition of photosynthetic activity and recovery when light returns. The intrinsic mechanism of photosynthetic inactivation during darkness with the interplay of the two mechanisms requires further studies.

Oxidation of the Cyanobactin Precursor Peptide Is Independent of the Leader Peptide and Operates in a Defined Order.

The five-membered nitrogen plus heteroatom rings known as azolines or in their oxidized form as azoles are very common in natural products and drugs. The oxidation of thiazoline to thiazole in the cyanobactin class of natural products is one of the several important transformations that are known to alter the biological properties of the compound. The ordering of the various chemical reactions that occur during cyanobactin biosynthesis is not fully understood. The structure of the flavin-dependent enzyme responsible for the oxidation of multiple thiazolines reveals it contains an additional domain that in other enzymes recognizes linear peptides. We characterize the activity of the enzyme on two substrates: one with a peptide leader and one without. Kinetics and biophysics reveal that the leader on the substrate is not recognized by the enzyme. The enzyme is faster on either substrate than the macrocyclase or protease in vitro. The enzyme has a preferred order of oxidation of multiple thiazolines in the same linear peptide.

Analysis of Protein Complexes in the Unicellular Cyanobacterium Cyanothece ATCC 51142.

The unicellular cyanobacterium Cyanothece ATCC 51142 is capable of oxygenic photosynthesis and biological N2 fixation (BNF), a process highly sensitive to oxygen. Previous work has focused on determining protein expression levels under different growth conditions. A major gap of our knowledge is an understanding on how these expressed proteins are assembled into complexes and organized into metabolic pathways, an area that has not been thoroughly investigated. Here, we combined size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with label-free quantitative mass spectrometry (MS) and bioinformatics to characterize many protein complexes from Cyanothece 51142 cells grown under a 12 h light-dark cycle. We identified 1386 proteins in duplicate biological replicates, and 64% of those proteins were identified as putative complexes. Pairwise computational prediction of protein-protein interaction (PPI) identified 74 822 putative interactions, of which 2337 interactions were highly correlated with published protein coexpressions. Many sequential glycolytic and TCA cycle enzymes were identified as putative complexes. We also identified many membrane complexes that contain cytoplasmic domains. Subunits of NDH-1 complex eluted in a fraction with an approximate mass of ∼669 kDa, and subunits composition revealed coexistence of distinct forms of NDH-1 complex subunits responsible for respiration, electron flow, and CO2 uptake. The complex form of the phycocyanin beta subunit was nonphosphorylated, and the monomer form was phosphorylated at Ser20, suggesting phosphorylation-dependent deoligomerization of the phycocyanin beta subunit. This study provides an analytical platform for future studies to reveal how these complexes assemble and disassemble as a function of diurnal and circadian rhythms.

Engineering Nitrogen Fixation Activity in an Oxygenic Phototroph.

Biological nitrogen fixation is catalyzed by nitrogenase, a complex metalloenzyme found only in prokaryotes. N2 fixation is energetically highly expensive, and an energy-generating process such as photosynthesis can meet the energy demand of N2 fixation. However, synthesis and expression of nitrogenase are exquisitely sensitive to the presence of oxygen. Thus, engineering nitrogen fixation activity in photosynthetic organisms that produce oxygen is challenging. Cyanobacteria are oxygenic photosynthetic prokaryotes, and some of them also fix N2 Here, we demonstrate a feasible way to engineer nitrogenase activity in the nondiazotrophic cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 through the transfer of 35 nitrogen fixation (nif) genes from the diazotrophic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. ATCC 51142. In addition, we have identified the minimal nif cluster required for such activity in Synechocystis 6803. Moreover, nitrogenase activity was significantly improved by increasing the expression levels of nif genes. Importantly, the O2 tolerance of nitrogenase was enhanced by introduction of uptake hydrogenase genes, showing this to be a functional way to improve nitrogenase enzyme activity under micro-oxic conditions. To date, our efforts have resulted in engineered Synechocystis 6803 strains that, remarkably, have more than 30% of the N2 fixation activity of Cyanothece 51142, the highest such activity established in any nondiazotrophic oxygenic photosynthetic organism. This report establishes a baseline for the ultimate goal of engineering nitrogen fixation ability in crop plants.IMPORTANCE Application of chemically synthesized nitrogen fertilizers has revolutionized agriculture. However, the energetic costs of such production processes and the widespread application of fertilizers have raised serious environmental issues. A sustainable alternative is to endow to crop plants the ability to fix atmospheric N2in situ One long-term approach is to transfer all nif genes from a prokaryote to plant cells and to express nitrogenase in an energy-producing organelle, chloroplast, or mitochondrion. In this context, Synechocystis 6803, the nondiazotrophic cyanobacterium utilized in this study, provides a model chassis for rapid investigation of the necessary requirements to establish diazotrophy in an oxygenic phototroph.

High myristic acid content in the cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. PCC 8801 results from substrate specificity of lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase.

Analysis of fatty acids from the cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. PCC 8801 revealed that this species contained high levels of myristic acid (14:0) and linoleic acid in its glycerolipids, with minor contributions from palmitic acid (16:0), stearic acid, and oleic acid. The level of 14:0 relative to total fatty acids reached nearly 50%. This 14:0 fatty acid was esterified primarily to the sn-2 position of the glycerol moiety of glycerolipids. This characteristic is unique because, in most of the cyanobacterial strains, the sn-2 position is esterified exclusively with C16 fatty acids, generally 16:0. Transformation of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 with the PCC8801_1274 gene for lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase (1-acyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase) from Cyanothece sp. PCC 8801 increased the level of 14:0 from 2% to 17% in total lipids and the increase in the 14:0 content was observed in all lipid classes. These findings suggest that the high content of 14:0 in Cyanothece sp. PCC 8801 might be a result of the high specificity of this acyltransferase toward the 14:0-acyl-carrier protein.

Biolubricant potential of exopolysaccharides from the cyanobacterium Cyanothece epiphytica.

Exopolysaccaharides (EPS) are carbohydrate polymers secreted by microbial cells, as a protective layer termed sheath or capsule. Their composition is variable. Optimisation of nutrient factors and the effect of some simple stresses on the ability of Cyanothece epiphytica to produce EPS were tested. Of the tested stresses, exposure to ozone for 50 s at 0.06 mg/L resulted in a relatively high EPS yield, without any damage to cell structure. EPS was characterised physicochemically. Chemically, it was found to be composed of pentoses arabinose and xylose; hexoses glucose, galactose and mannose; and the deoxyhexose fucose sugars which were sulphated and with different functional groups. EPS from C. epiphytica was found to be a good hydrophobic dispersant, an excellent emulsifier as well as a flocculant. Its potential as a biolubricant with characteristics better than the conventional lubricant 'grease' was revealed through analysis. This study gave the clue for developing a commercial technology to produce a less expensive and more environment-friendly natural lubricant from the cyanobacterium C. epiphytica for tribological applications.